LIBR280 Printed Book Study: Hobbes' "Leviathan"

LEVIATHAN

OR THE MATTER, FORME, & POWER OF A COMMON-WEALTH ECCLESIASTICAL AND CIVILL

by Thomas Hobbes

Printed Book Study

Melissa Townsend-Crow

San Jose State University

Prof. Elizabeth Wrenn-Estes

LIBR 280-12

April 7, 2013

Table of Contents

I. Introduction
II. Author

III. Title
IV. Context
V. Composition

             A.                Dedication and explicit
             B.                Colophon  and Printer's Device
             C.                 Foliation/pagination
             D.                Illumination/Painting
             E.                 Endleaves and flyleaves

VI.               Summary
VII.            References

Introduction

When I was looking for a book to study, I was fresh from the experience of seeing the Medieval manuscripts at the Huntington. My criteria for selecting a printed book for this study was, "The older the better!" I also wanted access to the actual material of the study rather than looking at it through a glass case or studying something online only. I am an alumni of the University of Southern California and so I believed that I would have a better chance of having access to their special collection materials. As it turns out, USC is very accommodating to not only those affiliated with the university, but also the general public and so I went to USC Libraries website and started following links until I found the Special Collections Rare Book page. The date 1651 caught my eye. It was Hobbes's Leviathan.  I had read this book and also Locke's work as an undergraduate English major, but it had been several years and I remembered the two authors in reverse. I hadn't cared for Hobbes's work, though I liked Locke's theories. So, instead of paging the Locke manuscript, I sent an e-mail to USC Libraries' Special Collections Department and requested that Hobbes be paged.  Despite my distaste for Hobbes's heavy-handed, dogmatic, theosophy and general cynicism on the subject of human nature, it was still a thrill to actually handle a book that had been printed almost 400 years ago.

Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes was published by the Crooke Brothers, specifically Andrew Crooke in London and printed in 1651. The books sold at St, Paul's Churchyard were usually first editions as opposed to second hand book sales (Roberts 1995).

Author

Thomas Hobbes was born in London, England during the reign of Elizabeth I in 1588. His father was a clergyman– which explains quite a bit of the text of Leviathan – in nearby Malmesbury, so his uncle, who was a tradesman and government official provided for Thomas's education.  He studied the Classics at Magdalen Hall in Oxford from the age of fourteen until he was 20. He became a private tutor to the Cavendish family, forging a lifelong connection to them, and traveled extensively over the world with his students, studying politics and world governments.  Around 1630, he wrote his Short Tract on First Principles which employed Euclid's formula. He fled to Paris at the start of the English civil war in 1642 where, eventually, he became a mathematics tutor to the Prince of Wales who had also fled to France to escape the danger of the civil war (between Royalists and Parliamentalists) in around1646. In 1651, the same year Leviathan was published, Hobbes returned to England. Years later (around 1667), Leviathan was the center of controversy when it was brought up in the House of Commons in reference to a law that was to be against blasphemous literature. According to the European Graduate School website:

Although the bill did not pass both houses, Hobbes was scared into studying the law of heresy, and wrote a short treatise arguing that there was no court that might judge him. He was forbidden to publish on the topic of religion. Many of his works were kept from publication, however a Latin translation of Leviathan was published in Amsterdam in 1668.

Thomas Hobbes continued to write political and religious works, including his autobiography (in Latin) until he died at the age of 91.

Context

As his mother was waiting to give birth, the Spanish Armada was sailing up the Thames in preparation to attack and she went into premature labor. Hobbes wrote, "my mother gave birth to twins, myself and fear." Perhaps this atmosphere of war and terror under  which Hobbes was born is why the theme of most of his writing is fear. It may have led to his cynicism and led him to the belief that life was "solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short" (Hobbes, 2012, p. 57)

There Is Alwayes Warre Of Every One Against Every One Hereby it is manifest, that during the time men live without a common Power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called Warre; and such a warre, as is of every man, against every man (Hobbes 2012, p. 56).

Like the Puritan that he was, Hobbes attributed this state of constant war to "nature" and wrote that the only way to peace is through the creation of a powerful government entity – a "leviathan" – led by an absolute ruler/king:

For by Art is created that great LEVIATHAN called a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE, (in latine CIVITAS) which is but an Artificiall Man; though of greater stature and strength than the Naturall, for whose protection and defence it was intended; and in which, the Soveraignty is an Artificiall Soul, as giving life and motion to the whole body; (Hobbes 2012).

Title

            The full title of the piece is LEVIATHAN:  OR THE MATTER, FORME, & POWER OF A COMMON-WEALTH ECCLESIASTICAL AND CIVILL.

Dedication

The Introduction is an epistolary dedication address to "M. Francis Godolphin" and signed by Hobbes from Paris on April^15/_25,  1651.  In it, Hobbes addresses Godolphin, telling him that in honour of his brother, Sidney Godolphin, he was dedicating this manuscript:  "in honour and gratitude to him, and with devotion to your selfe, I humbly Dedicate unto you this my discourse of Common-wealth. I know not how the world will receive it, nor how it may reflect on those that shall seem to favour it" (Hobbes 2012). Sir Francis was a member of parliament, his brother Sidney, also a member of Parliament as well as a poet. The family were, like Hobbes, loyal to the monarchy and as a result of this loyalty, he lost his seat in Parliament when the king was deposed. He was reinstated, however, after the English Restoration (of the Monarchy, around 1646) and he was knighted for his service at the coronation of Charles II, who was the Prince of Wales to whom Hobbes served as tutor while in exile in France.

 Composition

Colophon

                The colophon appears on the title page:

This is the printer's device:

Foliation/pagination/Type

      The pages are paper and the texture appears to be what we now call "laid bond" – which means that it was most likely milled solely from wood pulp with no rags. There were no detectable watermarks in the pages. There is no rubrication nor any color printing in the text of the book. In fact the only color in the book is the found on the flyleaf and endpapers, though those are so colorful as to make up for the lack within the actual book. The pages are bound with a gold cold-coloured thread or cord into a brown leather cover decorated with gold inlay, somewhat worn and faded now.

Hobbes Leviathan has a cover that looks similar to these

 The cover shows its age. Black round spots resembling burns or scorches dot the surface and for some reason, made me think of candles wax drips, though they could just as easily be mildew damage or the result of ink spots from a sloppy pen wielder.  This last possibility seems likely as there are notes in the margin throughout the book:

The edges of some of the pages, particularly in the front of the book appear to have suffered damage, whether from rodents or insects is not clear, but it looks like something was eating them. However, the book is nearly four hundred years old, so it is possible that centuries of handling, particularly turning these pages, might well have merely worn them to the point of wear. The typeset is Roman serif with italics used for emphasis and the lower case "s" looks like a lower case "f" and some, though not all, of the "u" look like "v."

Illumination/Painting/Illustration

The only illustration in the book in the frontispiece, a black and white ink drawing of a leviathan:

closer detail of the frontispiece illustration:

The British Library website offers an interesting analysis of the illustration:

The famous cover engraving provided Leviathan with an enduringly striking image. A crowned giant emerges from the landscape, clutching a sword (a symbol of earthly power) and a crosier (a symbol of church power). The torso and arms of the colossus are composed of over three hundred humans, showing how the people are represented by their contracted leader, who draws his strength from their collective agreement. Underneath is a quote from the Book of Job: "Non est potestas Super Terram quae Comparetur ei" ('There is no power on earth to be compared with him'), linking the figure to the Biblical monster, mentioned in Job, that Hobbes's book is named after.

One very interesting feature on this page is what appears to be Thomas Hobbes signature and is confirmed by the catalogue entry for this item in the USC Library Catalog system, HOMER:

and another signature on the title page:

A note on the title page offers the  provenance of the book and shows that it was purchased at "Eaton's Auction,  though no further information such as when or for how much is currently available.

Endleaves and flyleaves

These were covered with multicolored papers which made me think that they were not part of the original book. Primarily an olive or "avocado" green background and festooned with orange, pink, ivory and metallic gold spirals and fleur de lys, the end papers resembled something from the mid-1970s rather than something that would have been used in the mid-17^th century.

Summary

Hobbes's Leviathan  may not be my favorite text, but there is something to be said for a book that has survived, not only materially, but in the hearts and minds of people for almost 400 years.  USC's copy is in pretty good shape and the experience of visiting their special collections reading room to examine the manuscript was a very positive one.

References

British Library Board, The. (N.D.)  Hobbes's Leviathan.  Retrieved from http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/takingliberties/staritems/55hobbesleviathan.html on 04/06/13.

Champion, J. (N. D.)  Decoding the Leviathan: Doing the history of ideas through images, 1651–1714. retrieved from http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/ren/warwicknewberry/mellon-newberry/renaissanceandearlymoderncommunities/britishandamericanhistories/summerworkshop/18july/justin_champion022_chapter2013_hunter.pdf  on 04/13/13.

European Graduate School.  (2013). Thomas Hobbes Biography.  retrieved from http://www.egs.edu/library/thomas-hobbes/biography/ on  04/20.13.

Hobbes, Thomas (2012). Leviathan. Kindle Edition. Amazon Digital Editions, LLC.

Hobbes, Thomas (1651). Leviathan. London, England:  Andrew Crooke, Green Dragon, St. Paul's Churchyard.

Roberts, W. (1995).  St. Paul's Churchyard and Neighborhood. Retrieved from http://www.djmcadam.com/st-pauls-churchyard.html on 04/17/13.

SparkNotes Editors. (n.d.). SparkNote on Leviathan. Retrieved April 12, 2013, from http://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/leviathan/

University of Southern California Special Collections Department (2008). About Rare Books. Retrieved from http://www.usc.edu/libraries/archives/arc/libraries/rarebooks/about.html  on March 20, 2013.

University of Southern California Libraries.  (N.D.) HOMER catalogue entry for Hobbes's Leviathan retrieved from https://library.usc.edu/uhtbin/cgisirsi/?ps=Rt9GeLTEAf/DOHENY/52620036/2/1

LIBR 281 Storytelling Study: Folktales

Storytelling Study Folktales Melissa Townsend-Crow San Jose State University Prof. Elizabeth Wrenn-Estes LIBR 281-10 April 17, 2013

Introduction

     

Introduction

Every culture in the world has folklore and a very important aspect of the lore is the tales that are told, passed from generation to generation. It is within those tales that the seeds of the culture reside, waiting to be planted into the next generation through the hearing of those tales. I love folktales. I love telling fairytales, but I really love to hear folktales. I imagine the scene of a nomadic tribe, camped for the night, elders and children and everyone in between gathered around a communal fire at night, the stars shining overhead and the elders begin to speak, the others listens entranced. Another scene I imagine is  a travelling filé, a Celtic Druid-Poet or Bard, being joyfully greeted, his arrival met with feasting and celebration as he brings news and stories from Tribe to Tribe in pre-Roman British Isles … and so is passed a culture from young to old. That is what folktales do; they are cultural artifacts, passed down through the generations. 

     Sometimes it is difficult to delineate between folktales, fairy tales, and myths. This difficulty is caused by the similarities in each genre. In fact, Alan Dundes says that mythology is a subdivision of folklore (Dundes, 1975, p. 3). I would add some fairy tales to folklore classification as well. Certainly there is an element of magic in each of these. The folktale is specifically differentiated by its place in a culture, however, and it is thought to be related to some actual person or event, the details of which are often long-forgotten, and their purpose is to instill cultural values and pass on traditional lore, whereas myths are told to explain some mystery and fairy tales are pure fiction (Forest, 2000).  

Definition and Differentiation

Paulo de Carvalho-Nieto defines folkore as "a branch of cultural anthropology," and "a study of the cultural acts of any people."  Rooted in oral tradition, the folktale is identified by several markers (de Carvalho-Neto 1971, p. 15).  He specifies that these acts are :

• Cultural
• Anonymous
• Non-Institutionalized
• Ancient (Pre-logical) and
• Functional

Carvalho-Nieto elaborates on each of these points in his book. I will discuss briefly those points which seem germane specifically to the folktale as opposed to folklore in general.

Cultural

     The cultural aspect is one of the most important to discuss. Although a folktale may have culture-specific details, its function is to ensure the survival of cultural practices, traditions, and values.  From an anthropology point of view (versus a more subjective view, like that of a member of the culture being studied):  "The objective of folklore is to discover the rules governing the formation, organization, and metamorphosis of these cultural acts for the benefit of mankind" (Carvalho-Nieto, p 15).  According to Carvalho-Nieto, for an act, in this case telling a tale, to be cultural it is to be "extrinsic" or "beyond our individual conscience" (p. 20); to be "coercive" or endowed with an imperative strength which imposes patterns of behavior – or even expectations of a pattern of behavior  -- regardless of one's own will (p. 20-21); to be "interdependent," influencing others even as it is influenced by those it influences (p. 21); and "perfectionable" because humans are a work in progress, always improving and striving (21).

Anonymous

     Carvalho-Nieto states that anonymity is an essential quality to folklore (p. 27). This writer finds the  anonymous factor to be of value in relation to copyright issues when it comes to the selection of a story for public performance.  I have interpreted Carvalho-Nieto's discussion of this characteristic of anonymity as essentially the inability to confer authorship upon a specific individual. Perhaps the culture from which it arises is of an interdependent society that shares everything including stories. Perhaps the tale originates from an individualistic society and, as Carvalho-Nieto writes, "people do not create; they only imitate" (p. 26) and the work simply cannot be ascribed to an individual. Perhaps the story is just so ancient that no one remembers where it first began.

Ancient

     According to a quote from Enrique de Gandía, "the chronological limits of tradition cannot be determined in a fixed and exact manner. The present is not tradition because it is not old" (Carvalho-Nieto, pp. 32-33). In other words, these things have lasted, "stood the test of time," so to speak.

Classification

     An internet search for "folktale" leads primarily to sites which host tales. A more specific search will lead the scholar to the anthropological sites on folklore in general where one will find such names as Stith Thompson, Vladimir Propp, Alan Dundes, and Antti Aarne. It is a fascinating study subject, fascinating and extensive. The classification system created by Thompson and Aarne is thorough, although criticized by Propp on the grounds that the criteria for grouping some tales by motif was too variable and Thompson concedes that the classification is rather Eurocentric (Dundes, 1997). Despite these disclaimers, Dundes states that, " the six-volume Motif Index of Folk-Literature and the Aarne-Thompson tale type index constitute two of the most valuable tools in the professional folklorist's arsenal of aids for analysis" (1997).  I think it must be an occupational affinity for  librarians to classify, sort, organize, and catalogue.  Perhaps that's why Thompson and Aarne's classification system seems so attractive. Among the categories to which the team distributed the collected folktales are:

• Animal Tales (Types 1-299),
• Ordinary Folktales (Types 300-1199),
• Tales of magic
• Religious tales
• Aitiological tales
• Novelle (romantic tales)
• Tales of the stupid ogre
• Jokes and Anecdotes (Types 1200-1999),
• Numskull stories
• Stories about married couples
• Stories about a woman (girl)
• Stories about a clever/stupid lucky/unlucky man(boy)
• Jokes about parsons and religious orders
• Tales of lying
• Formula Tales (Types 2000-2399),
• Cumulative tales
• Catch tales
• Unclassified Tales (Narrationes Lubricae) (Types 2400-2499)

     Propp (1968) used Motifs such as Mythology, Animals, The Taboo, Magic, The Dead, Marvels, etc. rather than types to classify folk and fairy tales. I am inferring from this seemingly similarity in classification systems that Propp looked for a theme running through the entire story; Aarne and Thompson's system seems to use specific sets of criteria for each tale to determine where it falls in their classification system.  

Whichever method of classification is used, this writer concurs that the study of folklore is a fascinating and distracting one, but is really outside the scope of this paper.  The value of the classifications in this context is that it shows the similarity between tales of somewhat disparate cultures and it also shows an evolution of sorts in the adoption of the values of one cultural group by another.  For example, Dundes relates a time he collected a folktale from a 74-year old man who was a member of the Potawatomi tribe. The tale was Euro-centric but had been adapted to change the hero of the tale from a European to an Indian boy who outsmarted the white man in the story (Dundes, 1975 pp 31-35).  Dundes recognized the European elements of this type of tale from the AT classification system. In my own work, particularly the in the selection of stories to tell for this class as well as some of my fiction writing, I have come to recognize "types" of tales, for example the "rags to riches" of a Cinderella type story. It is, however, the details of the protagonist's personality which designate such stories as folktales rather than just fairy tales. Folk tales are used to pass on a culture's values to its younger members, so it stands to reason that a story in which the protagonist is rewarded for being kind, generous, patient as Cinderella is often portrayed could be considered a folk tale. By the same token, a myth could also be made into a folktale. For example in the Greek myth of Pandora as related by Thomas Bulfinch, Pandora was sent to earth with a box of evils and one Hope. Unable to resist temptation, she opened it and released all the evils on mankind.  Jane Ellen Harrison, however,  discusses the myth of Pandora in context to her depiction on a vase in the British Museum (see below).

Depiction of Pandora from a calyx at the British Museum

Here Pandora is seen as rising from the earth, being born, as it were, from the Mother. Harrison comments on the alteration of her myth to patriarchal terms:  "Pandora is in ritual and matriarchal theology the earth as Koré, but in the patriarchal mythology of Hesiod her great figure is strangely changed and minished. She is no longer Earth-born, but the creature, the handiwork of Olympian Zeus" (Harrison 284).  Pandora was originally depicted as rising from the earth with her pithos or jar. Pandora, "she who gives all gifts" is also known as Anesidora, which means "she who sends up gifts." Her denigration to the woman who loosed all the woes of mankind upon the earth is parallel to the Abrahamic tradition of Eve bringing the curse of original sin upon humans as fits with the value system of the patriarchal cultural that changed it. Another Pre-Hellenic story, that of Persephone and Demeter was also changed to match the values of a conquering culture. In the Cretan myth of Persephone as related by Charlene Spretnak, (pp 105-118), Hades is absent. Demeter has domain over both the living and the dead, but feels that it is more important to feed the living than to tend to the spirits of the dead.  Persephone chooses to descend to the underworld and become queen of the dead.  This tale could illustrate or explain a cultural practice involving the handling of the dead, as in burial or funereal practices of the Cretan culture. Having Persephone raped by or "married" to Hades transfers her authority as goddess of the underworld to the male god. Since humans tend to anthropomorphize their deities, it is likely that the method of the transfer of power between deities mirrors the method that the conquerors used to overthrow the indigenous culture. Thus, the myth becomes a folktale when it is used to define acceptable gender roles in a culture. 

Relevance:  Past, Present and Future

So the question arises, what do folktales have to offer us today, particularly folktales of other cultures? According to Catlin Matthews, "one of the major duties of poets and storytellers was to be a genealogical guardian, keeping the memory of long dead ancestors fresh in praise-songs" (Matthews, p. 115). In this context, folktales are rather like a time machine; they can transport listeners back to another time. I have read somewhere along time ago (and now I forget where I read it) that the Druid bards, the storytellers described above by Matthews were so well-trained that they could tell a story first told by another bard centuries before and it would be as if that bard from long ago were telling the story; they would convey the story in the voice with the gestures and mannerisms of the original bard. Perhaps this talent was the origin of the notion that Druids could shape-shift.

So sacred were some of the stories that any deviation from the way it was originally told, even a  change in inflection, regional accent, or pronunciation was considered a sacrilege punishable by death. Even writing the story rather than telling it was taboo, although Celtic bards did have a written alphabet that they used for messages to one another, called the ogham (see below). The cypher alphabet was used particularly after the Roman invasion and the Christian incursion and persecution of pagans in the British Isles to relay information and pass messages between Druids (Matthews, p. 22-23).

 Folktales are relevant today to share diverse cultural values. For example, the DVD series, "Storywatchers' Club" features a volume of folktales with such storytellers a "Mama" Edie Armstrong who tells bilingual tales as well as being fluent in and telling tales in American Sign Language. This year, our branch of the county library system hosted Rose "Arrow Bear" Figueroa who led a workshop in making storyteller dolls (see below).

 She and her daughter and grandchildren each took turns explaining each bit of lore surrounding the dolls and telling folktales from their own Native American Tradition as we worked with the red clay to make the dolls. For Chinese New Year, Barbara Wong came and told Chinese folk tales and taught everyone who attended Chinese characters.

Conclusion

A storyteller can use folktales to not only pass on his or her  own culture to the next generation, but can focus on the similarities between folktales from several different cultures and share these as a way of celebrating diversity. Tales of a type from different cultures can be told to groups of people to illustrate what people have in common as well as offering a look through the window of the story into a culture with which we may not be as familiar our own. Thus, storytelling can foster greater understanding between people of varying cultures by way of folktales. As the Grandma puppet in the "Story Watchers" DVD says, "Well, kids, remember, the more we understand other people and other cultures, the world will be a friendlier place." I cannot think of a better reason to tell folktales than that.

References

Baker, A., & Greene, E.  (1987).  Storytelling:  Art and technique.  New York, NY:  R. R. Bowker Company.

Bascom, W. R. (1954).   Four Functions of Folklore. The Journal of American Folklore , 67(266), pp. 333-349 American Folklore Society Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/stable/536411

Bulfinch, T. (2009). Bulfinch's Mythology. Public Domain Books. Kindle Edition. Retrieved from Project Gutenberg at http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3327.

de Carvalho-Neto, P. (1965). The concept of folklore.  (J.M.P. Briggs, trans.).  Coral Gables, FL:  University of Miami Press.

Dundes, A. (1975). Analytic essays in folklore.  Paris, France:  Mouton The Hague.

Dundes, A.  (1997).  The motif-index and the tale type index: A critique. Journal of Folklore Research, 34(3), 195-202 Published by: Indiana University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/stable/3814885 on 04/11/13.

Figueroa, R. (2013).  Storyteller doll workshop at Los Angeles County Library, Live Oak Branch.

Folktales types (N.D.)  Retrieved from http://scandinavian.wisc.edu/mellor/taleballad/pdf_files/motif_types.pdf on 04/13/13

Forest, H. (2000).  " First...what is a folktale?" in StoryArts.org , retrieved 04/08/13 from  http://www.storyarts.org/classroom/retelling/findingtales.html

Grimm, J., & Grimm, W. (2002). The complete fairy tales of the brothers Grimm.  (J. Zipes, Trans.).  New York, NY:  Bantam Books.

Harrison, J. E. (1908).  Prolegomena to the study of Greek religion. New York, NY:  Putnam and Sons.

Haven, K., & Ducey, M.  (2007).  Crash course in storytelling. Westport, CN:  Libraries Unlimited.

Matthews, C., & Matthews, J. (1994).  Encyclopedia of Celtic Wisdom. Rockport, MA:  Element Books, Inc.

McGreavey, R. (Director). (2006).  Storywatchers club:  World folktales, vol.1. United States. Sax Media Group. (DVD).

Propp, V.  (1968).  Morphology of the folktale (excerpts).  retrieved from http://homes.di.unimi.it/~alberti/Mm10/doc/propp.pdf on 04/16/13.

Rudy, J. T.  (2004).   Transforming Audiences for Oral Tradition: Child, Kittredge, Thompson, and Connections of Folklore and English Studies. College English, 66(5).  524-544.  Published by: National Council of Teachers of English. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4140733 on 04/16/13.

Schlosser, S. E. (2012).  Folklore definitions. Retrieved 04/05/13 from http://americanfolklore.net/folklore/2010/07/folklore_definitions.html

Shepard, A. (1996).  Researching the folktale. Aaron Shepard's storytelling page. Retrieved 02/03/13 from http://www.aaronshep.com/storytelling/A65.htm

Spretnak. C. (1992). Lost goddesses of early Greece:  A collection of pre-Hellenic myths. Boston, MA:  Beacon Press.

Striebe, C.  (1922).  Norwegian fairy book (F. Martens, Trans.). New, NY:  Frederick A. Stokes Company. Kindle edition.

Webster, M. (N.D.)  The hero's three-part journey. Retrieved 4/10/13 from http://faculty.gvsu.edu/websterm/Hero.htm

Wiggin, K. D., & Smith, N. H. (1909). Tales of wonder every child should know. New York, NY:  Doubleday, Doran & Co., Inc.

Wong, B.  (2013) Chinese story program presented for Chinese New Year, 2013 at Los Angeles County Public Library, Live Oak Branch. http://www.barbarawong.com/

Wright, G. O. (1954).  Projection and displacement: A cross-cultural study of folk-tale aggression.  Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 49 (4), 523-528. doi:  10.1037/h0063386.

Yeats, W. B.  (2011). Fairy and folk tales of the Irish peasantry. Kindle Edition. Amazon Digital Editions.